Frequently Asked Questions about research
The Human Genetics Commission has drawn together this basic information sheet for the public about scientific research. It explains the different aspects of research and the way in which research is funded in the UK, and provides links to more detailed information.
What is Research?
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or test current scientific knowledge. It is a step-by-step process that involves collecting and examining information. Scientific research relies on the application of scientific methods, the basis of which is testing a hypothesis ('I believe x will happen if I do y') and then accounting for why any observed result occured.
From a simple starting point it has been possible for science to propose and confirm scientific theories on the many aspects of the whole Universe. This research makes possible many practical applications, from engineering to genetics.
Individuals who carry out research are called researchers. Professionals who carry out research into human health and genetics include scientists, engineers, doctors, nurses, psychologists and social scientists. However there are many other types of researchers in diverse areas, although they all follow the principles above to generate new knowledge in their respective fields.
There are various different types of research undertaken by scientists. These are:
- Basic Research: any theoretical or experimental work preformed to acquire new knowledge or information about an observation or phenomenon. This type of research forms the foundations and backgound upon which solutions to problems and ideas are built. When this type of research is undertaken there is often no clear application in mind.
- Applied Research: usually an original investigation that acquires new knowledge directed primarily towards a specific aim or objective. This may involve taking forward a result from a Basic Research programme.
- Experimental Development: more systematic work that can draw from knowledge already gained from research and practical experience. It usually leads to the development of new products, devices or materials. It can also be used to install a new process, sytem or service, or to improve those that are already produced or installed. This type of research can also be seen as transitional research or systematic review.
Packages of financial sponsorship or support for researchers are referred to as ‘Research grants’. These grants are important and necessary, not only for researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of recognition within the scientific community.
The majority of funding for scientific research comes from two major sources, namely, industry (through research and development departments) and the Government, through Governmental bodies, the research councils, charities and universities.
The way in which these two sources approach research funding is different. An industrial company, for example, will decide on the type of research it needs to undertake to support its business objectives and channel funding into that area. Industry will rarely support what is know as ‘blue sky’ research (very ambitious and high-risk research) projects. If such research is undertaken by industry it is usually in collaboration with academic partners. Industry fiunded research is therefore typically more applied and the industrial partner will fund an already existing methodology (developed by the academic partner) to exploit and develop a product it can market.
Government funding is much more varied, with a range of research including basic, applied, and also research that is strongly driven by policy.
Who are the main funding groups in the UK?
There are three broad research funding groups in the UK: government departments and arms length bodies such as the Research Councils; charities and universities, and industry. Major funding bodies that support basic and applied research in the field of genetics include the Medial Research Council (MRC), Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), Department of Health, Technology Strategy Board, the Wellcome Trust, Cancer Research UK and the pharmaceutical industry.
A key difference between these bodies is the nature of the outputs of their funded research. Whilst many researchers in industry publish their work and make their data available to the scientific community, there is no obligation on them to do so and commercial requirements may well affect the extent and timeliness of publication. In general, the largest spenders on research are some of the largest businesses, including large pharmaceutical companies.
Researchers in receipt of public funds are likely to be under significant obligation both to seek economic benefit from their research but also to ensure timely and extensive publication of their work, for the benefit of the wider scientific and UK community.
Research Prioritisation
Research is considered a priority for both public and commercial advances and is therefore seen as a top priority by the organisations that undertake and fund it. Research is not only carried out to promote advances in medicine and healthcare but it is also a powerful tool capable of creating social and economical prosperity within society.
Priorities for government funded research and charitable research are currently set both by the funding body (top-down approach), and by the actual scientists doing the research (bottom-up approach). The reasons for prioritising different research range from the pursuit of scientific excellence to satisfying a perceived need, perhaps in healthcare or policy. The majority of government funding relies upon the peer review process to validate research proposals and to ensure independence from political pressure.
Priorities for research funded by industry are driven by the identification of areas for investment opportunity at a given time. If a company believes that it has an opportunity to research and develop a product that will increase its revenue, it will be inherently inclined to finance that specific work.
How is funding allocated?
Funding for research in industry is an internal matter, and commercial organisations have their own methods for determining which projects receive funding, including review boards or committees. This is something on which external bodies have little impact except through such structures as the taxation system.
Government and charity funding is usually distributed through four different modes:
- Focussed mode funding
- Responsive mode funding
- Commissioned research
- Core funding
Most funding through charities and research councils is to a certain degree 'focussed' on the area of interest of that charity or council. For example, Breakthrough Breast Cancer mainly supports research on breast cancer. The funding body therefore decides the general area in which research is required. The perceived needs for research within this area may arise from opportunity, a defined strategy or policy need. However, within the scope of these these specific interests , responsive mode funding is also usually available. This funding is aimed at producing excellent, internationally competitive research. Essentially a researcher determines the topic of research to pursue, while the funding body assesses eligibility of any proposals, usually through the process of peer review. This mode accounts for the largest source of research grants in the UK.
Commissioned research has a very particular focus on a specific research area. Generally, the funding body retains some level of control and/or ownership of the results of the research. The selection of a research proposal is not automatically dependant upon peer review, and a variety of other selection mechanisms may be used instead. Government departments regularly use this funding approach, while research councils and charities are very unlikely to use this sort of funding mode.
Core funding is used by institutes and embedded bodies, where allocation is based on the strategic priorities of the funding body rather than competitive tendering for funds. Funding administered in this way is reviewed regularly by external groups to ensure quality.
What is Peer review?
Peer review is often used in two distinct ways: for quality control in scientific journals and in the selection and review of funded research.
During the research commissioning process, prospective applicants submit their research to independent scientific experts for a selection and assessment process. This process (referred to as the 'peer review' process) generally includes both an external and committee stage. Most of the committee members will be experts and their role is 'to be wise and make judgements’ on the submitted proposals. Their expert views and input will help in determining whether a proposal will receive funding or not. Most committees comprising experts exist only for a short period of time and are appointed on an ad hoc basis for a specific purpose. The peer reviewers themselves are usually researchers in the same field as the applicant. They give their views on the research proposal anonymously and their expert opinion on whether the research is useful and deserves funding. Their views are then taken into consideration by the committee when making their final judgement.
Scientific Journals use a similar process of peer review, where the editors submit the scientists' draft reports to fellow scientists within the field. It is important to ensure that the peer reviewers have no conflicts of interest when reviewing the work in order to prevent bias. Peer review is intended to supply impartial expert advice on the quality of the scientific work. The referees may or may not recommend publication, publication with suggested modifications, or, sometimes publication in another journal. This serves to keep the scientific literature free of work that is unsuitable, helps to cut down on obvious errors, and generally improve the quality of the scientific literature.
There are potential drawbacks to the peer review process, ranging from inhibition of work considered unorthodox to over-permissiveness. There is also the possibility that judgements may be influenced by favouritism or animosity. However, the peer review process has been very widely adopted by the scientific community and is highly regarded as an excellent method ensuring research of the highest calibre.
Where can I find further information?
Many funding websites, including the BBRSC, the DH, the MRC and others, contain further information on how research is funded and also the process of peer review. Links to these websites are below: